Here is a general description of morels:

Morel mushrooms have an unusual appearance, because they produce ascospores,  which means the spores are enclosed within the tissue, and a force propels them out. The spores must therefore be near the surface, and a lot of surface area is needed. So there are ridges on the surface resulting in morels sometimes being called “sponge mushrooms.”

Morels, however, are nothing like sponges. They are hollow, rubbery and  brittle—much more brittle than other mushrooms. In fact, mushrooms usually have a tough skin over the surface and a fibrous stem. This prevents pieces of mushroom tissue from breaking off. By contrast, morels crumble easy and are often broken—an inadequacy stemming from recent evolution from a yeast.

The cap of the morel has many inadequacies which other mushrooms overcame. A typical mushroom cap protects spores from being washed away by rain. The morel cap does not. The gills of mushrooms have aerodynamic properties for exploiting wind. Morels cannot use wind nearly as effectively.

In other words, the use of
ascospores by the morel was not a result of advantageous evolution but a
disadvantageous carry-over from a yeast.

Creating a practical growing procedure for morels has been a long term task in science. The first assumption is that they should do what other mushrooms do. They do not, because they are nothing like other mushrooms.

Mushrooms are usually decay organisms. They produce enzymes on the surface of the mycelium for breaking down large molecules. Morels do not, except perhaps for attacking some polysaccharides, as yeasts do.

Mushrooms are usually quite ancient in their evolution, which makes them hardy and easy to handle, as difficult as mushrooms can be to handle. Morels are in the infancy of their evolution, which makes them very fragile to handle.

But there is more than recent evolution to the difficulties in controlling the growth of morels. Being the physiological equivalent of yeasts, morels are not well adapted to the soil, as mushrooms usually are.

Morels may seem to be ubiquitous, but they are environmentally fragile, and they do not disseminate well, as explained in the summary.

The dissemination problem combined with rapid evolution resulted in morels varying in their appearance from area to area. Morel types are so variable that nomenclature is in a state of confusion.

The largest division is between brown and black morels. However, the browns blend into whites, with yellow or tan morels in-between. The blacks also do not create a sharp break from the browns, as various types of grays are in-between.

Morels are also highly variable in size and shape. Cylindrical to cone shapes are perhaps the most common. Totally round morels are not uncommon. Pencil shaped morels are more rare.

Ice Age Theories:

The morel mushroom provides evidence on the cause and characteristics of ice ages.

Evidence indicates that the morel re-evolves at the beginning of each ice age. High humidity and rainfall are probably required to start morel evolution, because a filamentous yeast must resist dehydration on tree bark during the early stages.

There are places where humidity stays high routinely; and therefore, there is a
question of whether humidity needs to be any higher when the morel starts its
evolution. However, a truism is that unusual conditions promote major steps in
evolution.

When considering these points, morel evolution creates the impression that ice
ages start with high humidity and rainfall. Other theorists, however, have been
assuming that ice ages start with dry and cold conditions and continue that way
until the reversal starts, which takes about 80 thousand years.

One of the most recent theories about the cause of ice ages is that the earth’s
orbit moves to the edges of its plane at exactly the time when ice ages occur;
and out there, the earth’s atmosphere picks up dust particles which cloud the
air and cool the whole planet.

I find three major problems with that theory. One is that the earth and solar
system move continually and influence other masses by their gravity. Why then
would dust particles follow the earth without changing their positions? Comets
demonstrate that nearby particles are moved around by such factors as solar
winds.

Another problem with that theory is that ice ages have only been cycling at 100
thousand year intervals for the past million years, but they continue back in
time at other intervals for about a billion years. So most ice ages have not
been cycling with the earth’s orbit.

Another problem is that the theory requires a trigger concept which says that
the ice age is self-generating after it gets started. Otherwise, it would not
proceed for 80 thousand years before reversing. But self-generation does not add
up. When the air got dry and clear, warm up would start the reversal, and the
cycles would be very short.

My theory for the cause of ice ages is that one or more hot spots in the earth’s
core moves around and comes closer to the surface from time to time. When near
the surface, it heats the oceans causing more rain to occur. The increased
rainfall causes snow to accumulate faster than it can melt. The increased snow
and the cloud cover reflect sunlight causing a cool-down of the planet.

With this theory, the reversal can be attributed to the movement of the hot
spots in the earth’s core. The reason why ice ages increase 80% of the time and
decrease 20% of the time could be that the earth’s surface is slow at responding
to warm up but fast at responding to cool down.

An explanation for the large variations in the cycle time of ice ages is that
the movement of tectonic plates could cause oceans to heat differently, or the
movement of hot spots in the earth could be variable.

Finally a possible explanation for the evolution of morels is that a suitable environment is created in front of the ice sheet which covers part of the
northern continents during an ice age. Cold air sweeping off the ice may prevent
summer heat from dehydrating the yeast which evolves at the base of trees, as it
adapts to the soil.

your own green-house

This topic is about building a small greenhouse who are slightly interested in organic plantation,  on your property, grow organic stuff and make a modestly comfortable living? It may sound like a dream but I do believe that there are incomes to be made and some may even be comfortable ones.  Its like creativity of building a personal greenhouse. Lets share your knowledge, questions and dreams..

What do we know about organic greenhouses? Most of our experience is in growing seedlings. We have less knowledge about finishing herbs and veggies in a greenhouse.

Lets discuss the steps:

Vision : We know it can be done. Conventional greenhouses create their chemical dependencies by mono-cropping and by pushing and stunting their plants. The plants may look green and lush but they are under a great deal of stress and are therefore unprepared for their eventual release into the great outdoors. We began with a little bit of knowledge and a great deal of conviction. We have been pleased and relieved by our ability to grow strong, healthy looking plants according to organic principles. Our customers comment on the vigor of our plants both in root and fruit development. We had no mentors near to us but we knew there were people out there doing it. It takes research, ingenuity and a nurturing spirit; believing that it could be done.

Seed Source:. To comply with organic standards we need to buy as much as is possible from certified organic or at least untreated seed sources. We also have suppliers of native prairie plant seeds. If you want to grow a great variety of annual flower seedlings you may need to buy from seed companies that cater to commercial greenhouses . Any seed that is not from untreated sources needs to be cleared by your certifying body. We select open pollinated and native varieties whenever possible.

Germination:  Before becoming certified we used a fungicide called No Damp to prevent damping off - our greatest enemy in the germination chamber. We still had some damping off and we hated to use the chemical. So we did some research and adjusted our practices by:
a. seeding more sparsely
b. watering less, more often and never at night
c. ensuring good air movement

We also found natural prevention and treatment methods by employing chamomile tea baking soda and a 1% hydrogen peroxide solution. We have had little damping off in the three years we have been certified organic. We build a makeshift germination chamber every winter with wood and plastic and have found a variety of heating methods - propane, electric car warmer and circulating the hot air from our cathedral ceiling. The best advise is to be there. Fuss with the set up and bless the seeds often.

Soil Mixes: Most commercial growing mixes are expensive and not suited to organic production due to the wetting agents and fertilizers used. From day one we have mixed our own soil mixes by hand (and by homemade mixer) using local ingredients as much as possible. The ratios of these mixes - or the ingredients for that matter - are not set in stone. They have worked well for us and we have had them tested for nutrient micro nutrient and ph and have been complimented by the tester for their richness and balance.

Germination Mix: 6 parts sieved peat moss (1/4 inch sieve) with 1 part sieved sand.

Growing Mix:
2 ft3 peat moss ( 1/2 of a large bale)
1 pail served sand
2 pails (20 liter) sieved black soil
2 cups kelp meal
2 pails sieved compost
1 cup bone meal

It important to do germination checks on the soil, compost and sand to ensure that the weed seed count is not too high. It’s a hassle to have to weed 4000 ft2 of greenhouse. On a small scale the weeds are still a hassle but manageable. We do not sterilize the soil. We feel good about the natural living earth we give the plants to grow in. When we transplant from the germination trays into pots and packs, we use a weak fish fertilizer solution to soak with. We have not had to feed the seedlings in their pots - except for some mature specimen plants we have in pots by early March. The Growing Mix is designed to have enough nutrient to take the plants to final transplant in late May.

Plant Health: We prefer to keep the nitrogen level low in our growing mix so that the plants are not pushed to grow too quickly. It is the severe manipulation of growth rates that cause stress in plants and leave them vulnerable to insects and fungal disease. We also believe in diversity of plant life in any greenhouse space. This variety discourages pests. The odd time we have had aphids or white flies we have managed to control them with insecticidal soap. Natural remedies depend on our observation skills so that the problems are noticed and responded to in a timely way. It takes time, research and people to talk and show stuff to develop the observation skills.

Structures and Heating: Because of our climate we have not experimented with heating a greenhouse through the winter. We would consider it if we were close enough to an urban centre where the demand for salad mixes, fresh herbs and exotic vegetables is dependable. We would then put a lot more energy into building with solar heat retention in mind. As it is, we start the greenhouse in March and use it until October. It is built along the south side of our home. Part of it is roofed in fylon (corrugated fiberglass) and part in plastic. If we are blessed with the demand we expect is out there, we are planning to build a new structure that will be backed on the north side with stuccoed straw bales and include a water heat sink along its length. We have worked with greenhouses oriented north-south and east-west and find advantages to both.

Marketing: This is a rural, conservative area so we have not pushed the organic aspect of our business in the local press. We have had a number of journalists come to see what we are doing and have written the business up in enthusiastic terms. People have driven out from Winnipeg and Brandon (3 and 1 hour drives) because we were the only place in Manitoba to buy certified organic seedlings. Over the years the number of local and loyal customers has grown steadily. At present we sell most of our seedlings by advertising through progressive agriculture newspapers and newsletters. We are interested in informing land holders who are exploring the medicinal herb market about our service. If you are near to an urban center, we have seen enough to believe that the sky is the limit to what you can grow organically in your greenhouse. Our advice is to go out and talk with your health and bulk food stores and with the chefs of the more ‘interesting’ restaurants in your area. Talk to them about being local, fresh, organic and willing to try almost anything.

Rob Wallbridge, an organic vegetable producer  Dundas County Canada, hopes to nurture a growth spurt in the number of organic farmers in the region. As a activist and vocal force for organic dairy products- co-incidently his work area matched his passion. As of April 1, Wallbridge is member relations manager in Eastern Ontario and Quebec for Ontario’s largest organic farmers’ cooperative, OntarBio.

Since 1989, the co-op markets produce from 160 member farms, including organic eggs, frozen vegetables, grain, animal feed, and a wide range of organic dairy products sold under the Organic Meadow label. It also operates a grain storage and processing facility in Durham, Ontario.

After graduating from McMaster University (1995, B.Sc.) university, Wallbridge worked on organic farms in Nova Scotia and Western Ontario, time that he credits with hooking him on the ideals of producing food without the use of pesticides or herbicides. So his passion, knowledge, perseverance, professionalism and practical expertise had recognized him one of the pioneers in the field of Organic farming.

His duties include setting up organic farming workshops and other events and paying regular visits to the membership, and generally promoting the benefits of OntarBio to farmers who appear interested in making the switch to organic production.

It will also mean spending considerable time on the road — he estimates at least two days a week. So above all his heard work has made him on the track of success.

In some point of his practical expertise and observation He mentioned about Ten Things Organic/Bio Agriculture is BAD at:

1) Producing mass quantities of cheap commodities and marketing them at below the cost of production.

2) Forcing consumers to accept food produced in a way not in accordance with their wishes (ie. GMOs).

3) Believing that all people want is the cheapest food possible, no matter how it is produced.

4) Endangering the future of our species by depleting the precious, living topsoil with toxic chemicals and artificial fertilizers.

5) Confining livestock in unnatural environments and using drugs to enhance their performance.

6) Driving people off the land and out of rural communities by replacing clever management and rewarding labour with quick-fix chemicals and massive machinery.

7) Generating handsome profits for large corporations and their shareholders.

Attracting government funding and corporate research grants to pursue more ways to make us more dependent on off-farm inputs.

9) Keeping up with the growing demand for our nutritious, flavorful, chemical-free produce.

10) Keeping a straight face when presented with ridiculous questions.

Try hard enough and you can put a “bad face” on anything. Read any of the mainstream farm press or talk to any company rep to hear all that. Is it constructive or productive? No. Does the organic movement/industry have challenges to face? Yes. Are there ideals and goals we can be striving towards, as we constantly improve our practices? Certainly. And sorry, but I’m too busy doing that to be telling someone “what’s bad in organics”.

The producers’ stories are supplemented with additional information on organic techniques, certification, and marketing from government and university resource people responsible for monitoring and supporting agricultural production.

Producers considering organic farming will need to make their own inquiries and perhaps conduct small-scale organic farming experiments of their own. Additional information sources are listed at the back of this booklet.

A Definition of “Organic”

Many terms are used to describe alternative approaches to agriculture - low input sustainable agriculture, regenerative agriculture, organic farming and alternative farming, to name a few. The term “organic” is gaining a technical and legal meaning enabling producers and buyers to establish recognized standards for registration and certification, quality control, and marketing procedures. For the purpose of this publication, the definition adopted by the Organic Producers’ Association of Manitoba Co- operative Ltd. (OPAM) has been used:

An organic product is that which is raised, grown, stored, and/or processed without the use of synthetically-produced chemicals or fertilizers, herbicides, insecticides, fungicides, or any other pesticides, growth hormones or growth regulators.
(OPAM, Appendix A).

The organic farmers you will meet on the following pages represent a broad range of experience with organic farming, from those who have always farmed organically to those still in transition. The farmers were selected from different locations across the province so that a variety of agricultural situations would be covered.

The farms profiled vary in size, ranging from three sections to a half section. Grain farmers, livestock and mixed farmers were selected to show that organic farming techniques can be incorporated into many different systems.

Farmers were asked to complete a questionnaire covering the type of farm, crop rotations, weed and insect control, tillage, and marketing. Phone calls and visits provided additional insights and enabled farmers to confirm that their views were being represented correctly.

Information about the farm’s location and its enterprises is provided at the beginning of each farm profile to help you to identify the farms that come closest to your own situation.

Norman and Margaret Beckman

Location:                     Southeast of Steinbach, Manitoba
Farm Type:                    Dairy and beef production
Farm size:                    63 hectares (155 acres) plus 73
                              hectares (180 acres) rented bush and
                              pasture
Soils:                        Gray sandy loam
Average Annual Precipitation: 515 mm (20 in.)
Frost Free Days:              114
Started:                      1969
Emphasis:                     Forage crop production and management

Norman and Margaret Beckman operate a beef and dairy farm a short distance southeast of Steinbach. Their soils are stony, grey sandy loams with highly variable topography and drainage.

“In 1969, we stopped using all chemical fertilizers, herbicides and pesticides,” Margaret said. They took this step for three reasons: to enhance the biological life of the soil, to reduce environmental pollution and to be able to pass land on to the next generation in better condition than they received it.

The Beckmans have a dairy herd of 20 Holsteins and a beef herd of 35 registered Blonde d’Aquitaine cows with calves and yearlings. Only bulls going to the test station are treated for warbles. All other animals are raised without prophylactic antibiotics. Most years they also feed 500 broiler chickens. Of the 136 hectares (335 acres), 53 ha (130 acres) are arable and the balance is in bush and native pasture. Feed grain, usually mixed wheat, oats or barley is fed to the livestock. Other arable land is used for tame pasture and hay with mixtures that include alfalfa, trefoil, brome, timothy ryegrass and clovers. In some years, grass seed has also been broadcast on the native pastures.

The Beckmans are not certified organic producers now, but they have investigated the possibility. They market young beef and most of their chickens, dressed at 2.5 to 3.5 kg (6 to 8 lbs), directly to customers. Some young bulls are sold as breeding stock and milk is sold to the Manitoba Milk Producers’ Marketing Board.

Crop Rotation and Soil Fertility Management

The arable land on the Beckman’s farm is divided into seven fields between 6 and 8 hectares (15 and 20 acres) each, on which a seven-year rotation cycle is followed. The Beckmans worked with the Eastern Manitoba Grasslands Society to test rotational grazing and have improved pasture productivity using a rotational grazing cycle of about 30 days. Their crop rotation is:

                                Year

1         2              3              4 5 6          7
Wheat or  Mixed     Oats with           2 cuts Hay;    Pasture:
Barley    cereal    forage              either third   rotation
                    Ryegrass            cut or fall    graze in
                    (under-seeded)      Pasture        3-4 cells
                                                       (trial)

In the fall, composted manure is spread on land to be cultivated during the next season. Hay fields are top-dressed with poultry manure from a nearby broiler farm. Poultry manure is not used on grain fields because it adds excessive amounts of nitrogen to the soil which increases crop height and increases the risk of lodging. The Beckmans said they have had “too many fields where the grain was 90 to 120 cm (3-4 feet) tall, lush and green and then flattened by a wind or rain.”

Pest Management and Tillage

Wild oats have been a problem for the Beckmans in a few low, wet areas in the field. “Wild oats thrive in wet, compacted soil,” notes Norman. “If soils are well-drained and not cultivated until they are dry then there is no real problem.” Where Canada thistle is a problem in native pastures, it is mowed down in the bud stage. If weeds become a problem in grain fields because of drought, the grain is cut for green feed and then cattle are pastured on the field. “Insects have never been a problem. We let nature take its course,” say the Beckmans. They encourage birds on the farm by providing nesting areas.

The Beckmans use four implements for cultivation: a tandem disc for turning over hay fields; a deep tiller for loosening soil after the cereal crop has been harvested; and a cultivator and harrows for spring seed bed preparation. “We don’t use a plough because it exposes the soil to wind erosion and moisture evaporation. Nor do we summerfallow because we try to keep the soil covered as much as possible,” says Norman. He said the use of animal and green manures provides the soil with plenty of organic matter to bind it together and resist erosion.

Information and Ideas

“The biggest problem we had when we started farming organically was the lack of information on how to go about it,” said the Beckmans. “When we asked around, people couldn’t believe we wanted to go back to the old-fashioned way in these modern enlightened times.” Agricultural specialists were the most sceptical individuals, although a few have been interested and even supportive. The Beckman’s bankers did not discourage them from farming organically.

Reflecting on their experience the Beckmans say, “The change- over was not easy. Production was down and we learned by trial and error. We bought no fertilizers, not even organic ones. We couldn’t get enough manure at first, nor did we know about green manures then. Today the transition would be easier because of the amount of information available.”

The Beckmans are experimenting with the transition to organic production on rented land. Half of the proposed area will be used as a grass-legume pasture for three years. The other half will be seeded to sweet clover which they plan to cut two or three times in the second year, leaving the cut plant material to rot into the remaining growth. The timing of cutting will coincide with the timing of weed flowering to prevent seed set of weeds.

The Campbells

Location:                     North of Virden, Manitoba
Farm type:                    Wheat and forage, sheep operation
Farm size:                    325 hectares (800 acres) under
                              organic production:  195 hectares

                              (480 acres) cropped; 130 hectares
                              (320 acres) pasture/forage
Soils:                        Oxbow smooth phase and thin black
                              loams
Average annual precipitation: 462 mm (18 inches)
Frost free days:              115
Started:                      1986
Emphasis:                     Direct seeding, sheep production.
                              The Campbells farm with Colin's parents,
			      Archie and Pat Campbell.

Colin and Trudy Campbell farm a few miles north of Virden on Oxbow smooth phase and Oxbow thin black loam till soils. They started the transition to organic production in 1986 for both economic and environmental benefits. The Campbells grow wheat and forage crops and have a commercial sheep operation.

To make the transition to organic farming, Colin used a lot of summerfallow, although he recognizes this was not ideal, and now uses a sweet clover green manure instead. The first year, he summerfallowed half of his land; on the other half he grew wheat on under-seeded with sweet clover. When under-seeding Colin first sows wheat with an air seeder. He then goes over the field again with his air seeder to seed the clover, placing it shallowly, just into moisture. He says using the sweet clover disc-down has allowed him to eliminate black fallow. He also plans to grow shelter belts to protect his soil from wind erosion.

Pest Control and Soil Fertility

The Campbell’s major dockage weed problems are redroot pigweed, wild buckwheat and wild millet (green foxtail). The major field weeds are Canada thistle, quack grass, and lamb’s quarters. Kochia is a problem on lands that have been damaged by salt spills resulting from breakages in underground salt water flow lines operating in the Virden oil fields.

Fall seeded crops or under-seeded sweet clover have been effective weed management measures, along with an increased seeding rate and both pre- and post-seeding tillage. From grain produced on the clover land, dockage has been minimal (3 to 5 per cent). Colin emphasizes that the struggle for effective weed control is ongoing, and remains his biggest production problem.

Crop insects have not been a major problem, but internal and external sheep parasites have prevented the Campbells from producing sheep organically.

To maintain soil fertility the Campbells use both animal and green manures. Colin says, “They are the basis of organic farming. I can’t see any other choices yet.” After using several approaches in recent years, Colin is not sure of the best method of dealing with livestock manure. He made compost in 1989, becuase he had been feeding screenings and wanted to avoid spreading weed seed. In 1990, he took the raw manure directly to the field. In 1991, he dumped the manure from the sheds in small piles on the field, allowed it to compost over the summer, and spread it with the front end loader over the salt-damaged areas. This method enabled the barns to dry out over the summer, reducing disease risk for the sheep and reducing handling costs both in time and money. However, Colin remains unsatisfied with this method of handling compost.

Seeding winter wheat into clover

When asked about special production methods, the Campbells described an experiment they tried with reduced tillage and sweet clover. In 1987, they had undersown wheat with sweet clover. Because the next season (1988) was so dry, they made two cuttings of hay and decided not to disc it in as a green manure crop. Instead, they planted winter wheat directly into the clover stubble after a rain in mid-September. In 1989, also a dry year, they harvested 17 bushels of wheat per acre. Had they received more moisture, the experiment might have been more successful. The advantage was they could reduce the amount of tillage for that field.

Colin is also encouraged by the development of new crop; varieties such as Sunwheat (dwarf) sunflowers. They can add variety to the rotation and provide both economic and rotational benefits, without requiring expensive purchases of specialized equipment. It should also be possible to harrow this crop for weed control shortly after emergence and with minimal crop damage — a non-chemical weed control operation not always practical for crops more susceptible to damage.

Thinking organically

The Campbells market as much of their organic grain as possible through B.P. Kent Flour Mills in Virden. Some grain still goes though the Canadian Wheat Board marketing system, especially if the grain is low in protein.

Colin thinks that one of the greatest limitations for organic farming “may be in our own minds.” He said, “I don’t think organically yet. Up till now it’s been so easy to grab a can of chemicals to fix whatever the ailment is,” adding, “It might be just as easy to do it organically, but society doesn’t think that way, so these solutions don’t present themselves.”

“One problem with organic farming is farmers have to do the experiments themselves,” says Colin. “There just isn’t a lot of readily available research.”

When asked about the economics of organic farming, Colin says he is not able to compare his “bottom line” with that of his conventionally farming neighbours. “You have to make your choices and work out what is best for you.”

The Jacobsons

Location:                     Wales, North Dakota
Farm type:                    Mixed crops and small cow-calf
                              operation
Farm size:                    260 ha (640 acres) of which
                         210 ha (520 acres) is cropland
Soils:                        Clay loam, high pH
Average annual precipitation: 475 mm (19 in.)
Frost free days:              109
Started:                 1974, one third of farm
                              - balance 1982
Emphasis:                     Philosophy, innovation and
                              experimentation

Terry and Janet Jacobson farm a section of land at Wales, North Dakota, about 16 km (10 miles) south of the Manitoba border, near Manitou. From 1974 until 1982 they farmed only a third of their land organically, allowing them to develop the skills required to complete the transition. They farm organically because they believe in “working in harmony with the environment.” Terry says that, “Farming organically is better for the land, the animals and the farmer.”

Crop rotation

On their 210 arable ha (520 acres) the Jacobsons usually have about 60 ha (150 acres) of wheat, 60 ha (150 acres) of disc-down clover or buckwheat, and 24 to 32 ha (60 to 80 acres) of sunflowers. The remainder is divided among durum, oats, rye, millet, flax or barley and a small stand of alfalfa. Their typical rotation is illustrated in the chart below.

                                   YEAR
            1         2           3           4           5              6
Crop in   Wheat    Oats or     Clover       Wheat or  Sunflower;      Buckwheat
Rotation           Barley or   (disc-down)  Durum     Flax or Spring  or Peas on
                   Millet with                        Rye or Millet   Sunflower;
                   Clover                             with Clover     Clover
                   (under-                            (under-         (disc-down)
                   seeded)                            seeded)

Terry explains, “I have some crops such as wheat, clover and sunflowers firmly fixed in the rotation, while other crops are grown in response to market pressures.” He plans to rotate a three-year stand of alfalfa over the farm over a 20-year period. Because it is not easy to establish clover in sunflowers, either buckwheat or field peas are used for disc-down in the season following sunflowers. Because they lack a grass-seed box on their drill, they mix the clover seed with oats or rye seed.

The Jacobsons also have a cow-calf operation with 15 cows. They hope to expand their operation to about 20 cows, believing a good organic farm should have a high ratio of livestock to arable acres.

Soil fertility

The Jacobsons believe in using as few external inputs as possible because, “the larger your off-farm purchases, the more economically vulnerable your farm.” They also believe in recycling resources as carefully as possible.

Terry finds discing down sweet clover releases nitrogen and improves both the structure and the water-holding capacity of the soil. He uses an old Surflex (a single row of angled discs) which cuts the clover and mixes it slightly with the soil. Ten days later he discs the field again. However, Terry says that, “A phosphate deficiency is my major fertility concern.” His soils have a pH value of 7.4 to 8.0, so rock phosphate becomes available to plants very slowly. Adding rock phosphate to his composted manure may build up plant-available phosphate when it is applied to the soil, since the acid in the manure may facilitate breakdown of the rock phosphate. The Jacobsons compost their manure in heaps and allow it to heat enough to kill weed seeds. The compost is not spread until late summer or fall during clover disc-down years.

Reearchers with the Low Input Sustainable Agriculture (LISA) program at the North Dakota State University (NDSU) Carrington Research Station have been working with Terry to determine the best way to handle legume, green manure crops. They have worked with different crops and with different methods and schedules of plough- down or cutting.

Weed and insect control

Wise crop rotation can be an effective method of weed control. In addition to rotating crop types, the Jacobsons also “rotate” the timing of seeding. To break the cycle of early-and late-emerging weeds, they seed early in years one and four of their rotation, late in years two and five, and use a clover fallow in years three and six. For weed control in small grain crops the Jacobsons harrow just before crop emergence, three to five days after planting. With flax, they find planting half the seed in one direction and the other half at a 45-degree angle helps provide ground cover to shade weeds. They have tried harrowing standing wheat slowly in the heat of the day, but feel this method causes too much damage to the wheat plants. Sometimes, though, areas with a concentration of wild oats are harrowed because wheat can stand the abuse better than the wild oats.

Terry finds Canada thistle a tough weed; he controls it by allowing the plants to grow until they bud, then cutting them off below the ground surface with a cultivator or Noble blade. Every 21 days thereafter, he cuts the roots off below ground with a cultivator, rodweeder or Noble blade. Terry likes the Noble blade because it does minimal damage to the soil structure. The tillage depletes the root reserves causing the thistles to suffer heavy winter kill. Terry’s thistle control is done at the sweet clover stage of the rotation when adequate cover can be maintained on the soil surface to prevent erosion.

“To compete better with weeds, I always select tall varieties of grain,” Terry said. Experimenting with a Morris hoe drill (with rod weeder attached) for seeding, he reported encouraging results using early, shallow cultivation to stimulate weed growth, and then planting into the weeds 10 to 14 days later. He depends on the rod weeder to lay the weeds on the surface. Terry explained that in some years he has excellent weed control, but other years he has a field or two in which conditions favour weeds over the specific crop. “In the cool, damp spring of 1989, for instance, it was very hard for me to get good weed control,” said Terry. “I do have a higher weed population than my neighbours who spray, but it is not glaringly different most of the time.”

In the fall of 1991, Terry purchased a small flock of 15 to 20 sheet primarily to assist in weed control. He intends to graze the sheep in oily and fibrous crops like sunflowers and flax, timing the grazing carefully to minimize damage to the crop. The plan calls for the sheep to graze selectively on grassy-type or broadleaf weeds. He is starting small to determine if he has the skills and interest to handle them, and to see how they fit into the family’s farm.

Terry has few problems with insects in stored grain. He notes that there are products available which meet organic certification standards for combatting the worst pest problems.

Tillage

“You have to ask yourself before each and every tillage operation whether that operation is necessary,” said Terry. In the fall he deep-chisel ploughs, and, if there is excessive straw, he harrows and spike-chisels a second time. Chiselling stubble ridges the ground, aerates it, incorporates straw, and speeds up the breakdown of the organic matter. The ridges resist erosion, hold snow, and help the soil to warm up faster in the spring. When seeding rye, a zero-till drill is used. Reduced tillage and increased biological activity improves soil structure and reduces soil vulnerability to erosion.

An “organic philosophy”

The Jacobsons believe careful observation, creativity and experimentation are important management skills for farmers looking to long-term viability of the land. Terry believes that conventional agriculture too often looks for “quick-fix” solutions to farm problems, rather than long-term solutions. By offering these “quick-fix” or “buy-an-input” solutions, conventional agriculture discourages farmers from examining the whole farm system to discover solutions, including the farm’s internal resources. For example, a wild oats problem requires one to think about the entire farming system, beyond the short-term, immediate problem of a specific weed in a specific season. The long-term solution may require changes in the crop rotation and in methods of field preparation. It may take years to develop a system to solve these problems, but the solution is often permanent and may not require the purchase of an off-farm product, even a “benign” or organic product. In other words, conventional agriculture has tended to consider too small a scope of solutions to farm problems, without considering the resources already available within the farm, not the least of which are the farmer’s individual interests and management skills. Terry believes that “learning the systems approach to management is at the heart of the difference between conventional and organic agriculture.”

Terry says commitment to this philosophy of farming is the most important part of the overall picture for the organic farmer. He believes that farmers who start organic farming just to take advantage of price premiums will run into financial problems. He was able to farm organically without price premiums at the beginning and sees premiums only as “icing on the cake.”

The Morrisons

Location:                     Northeast of Strathclair, Manitoba
Farm type:                    Mixed cropping (no livestock)
Farm size:                    223 ha (550 acres)
Soils:                        Newdale clay loam
Average annual precipitation: 464 mm (18 in.)
Frost free days:              105 to 110
Started:                      1986, still in transition
Emphasis:                     Stepwise transition

Norm and Janet Morrison’s farm is on Newdale clay loam soils with variable slope and drainage. Norm says he’s in the fifth year of a transition that is still not complete. Not all crops are produced under organic conditions because he uses fertilizer and herbicides on certain problem fields. During the off-season, Norm works as a computer specialist, applying computer software to agriculture and farm management problems.

He reports that before starting the transition, he used conventional farming methods: high amounts of commercial mineral- type fertilizer, post-emergent herbicides and generally accepted rotations. “It seemed to me that during this conventional period my crop yields were slipping, while it seemed to take more fertilizers and herbicides to keep the yields at an average level,” said Norm. The huge chemical and fertilizer bills also concerned him. “In 1985, I stumbled into the concept of organic farming” said Norm. Although I had certainly heard of it before, I considered it to be only for small scale operations by farmers who did not know how to farm properly.” Initially, he said, it was hard to see past what he had learned while earning his Bachelor of Science in Agriculture. Norm was first attracted to organic farming because of the economics of conventional agriculture. Later, he came to regard the philosophy as important as the economics.

Crop rotation

The Morrisons grow about 80 to 100 ha (200 to 250 acres) of wheat, 40 ha (100 acres) of rye, 40 ha (100 acres) of yellow or sweet clover for green manure, and about 40 ha (100 acres) of flax. Canola, peas or lentils are substituted for flax, depending on the market situation. The biggest change from conventional agriculture has been in the area of crop rotation. Norm’s five year-rotation is illustrated in the chart below.

                                   YEAR
             1          2          3            4         5
Crop in    Wheat    Wheat with  Clover       Fall Rye  Flax or
Rotation            Clover      (plough-               Peas or
                    (under-     down)                  Canola
		    seeded)     followed by
		                Fall Rye

The rotation reduces weed problems, although Canada thistle and quackgrass remain a concern in some fields, and sometimes require chemical control. Cultivation can help, but the risk of soil degradation discourages excessive tillage. On occasion, Norm delays seeding to allow for pre-seeding weed control. For deep- seeded crops, Norm may harrow when the crop reaches 10 to 15 cm (4 to 6 in.) high, provided the crop is not under stress. Norm found that, in most cases, acceptable weed control can be achieved by cultivation, competitive crops and the use of allelopathic crops such as fall rye.

Leguminous crops are needed to increase fertility. Green manure crops, mainly clover, are the primary source of nitrogen. Norm uses a small rotary seeder towed behind an all-terrain vehicle to seed sweet clover into a cereal field. He then harrows before emergence of the cereal crop.

Green manure is supplemented with proprietary biological products, intended to introduce a higher level of microbial activity for breaking down organic matter. Norm has also used German oil seed radish as a green manure crop. This plant has a deep tap root, and provides good levels of organic matter, although it does not fix atmospheric nitrogen.

Apart from green manure incorporation, tillage is only done in the fall. The first tillage is done with a chisel plough using 7 to 10 cm (3 to 4 in.) sweeps which may be followed by harrowing and a second tillage with a chisel plough using 40 cm (16 in.) sweeps in late October. No pre-seeding tillage is done. Crops are seeded with a hoe drill with an attached rod weeder.

Problems and observations

“When I first started farming organically I stopped using all synthetic fertilizers and herbicides on the whole farm,” Norm said. “That was a very large mistake which caused severe financial problems.” In the second year he reverted back to more conventional methods on all but one quarter. He suggests no more than 20 to 25 per cent of the farm be converted at a time. It is best to ease into organic production and learn from your own experience and from that of other farmers. Norm doesn’t achieve the high yields he once had and may have weedier crops than his neighbours. However, he expects to achieve good yields regularly with adequate weed control. He believes his methods will protect the health of the soil and the environment and that organic agriculture can be financially successful.

The Popps

Location:                     East of Erickson, Manitoba
Farm type:                    Mainly beef, cow-calf, wheat and
                              canola
Farm size:                    780 ha (1,920 acres): 240 ha
                              (600 acres) forage, 240 ha
                              (600 acres) cropped, 290 ha
                              (720 acres) wooded area
Soils:                        Grey wooded loam-clay loam,
                         undulating
Average annual precipitation: 470 mm (19 in.)
Frost free days:              105 to 110
Started:                      1984 on first five
                              quarter sections
Emphasis:                     Large area of forage

Werner and Monika Popp started farming three sections of land east of Erickson in 1983 and began the transition to organic farming on the first five quarters in 1984 and 1985. Reduced input costs and expanding markets for reliable organic producers were two factors that motivated Werner and Monika to take up organic production. The rolling, forested area near Riding Mountain is well suited to forage production so organic farming makes sense there, although Werner is not sure it would make sense in all parts of the province.

Beef production provides the major income on this farm. The Popps manage a 90-cow herd, with heifer replacements and about 40 feeder bulls. The ideal animal is about 50 per cent Hereford, 25 per cent Simmental and 25 per cent Charolais.

Crop rotation

The Popps have worked out a five-to-six year rotation (see chart below) with over a third of the farm in alfalfa forage at all times. They also grow about 120 ha (300 acres) of wheat or barley, 80 ha (200 acres) of canola and have 40 ha (100 acres) in summerfallow. To start the transition to organic farming, they grow wheat, under-seeded with alfalfa. Alfalfa is then grown for the next three years. Poorer soils are fallowed and have manure added in year five of the rotation. Barley is under-seeded with alfalfa in year six.

The main weeds are wild oats, Canada thistle, pigweed and shepherd’s purse. The alfalfa rotation provides a fair degree of weed control. On cropped land, seeding is delayed to allow weed growth before two passes with a deep tiller with 40 cm (16 in.) shovels. Fall cultivation involves one stroke of the deep tiller with 10 to 15 cm (4 to 6 in.) spikes. Seeding is delayed 8 to 10 days, but with large equipment the crop is soon seeded. Weed control in wheat is their biggest problem and they feel that research is required to find viable solutions.

Soil fertility and tillage

“Fertility, especially low phosphate and sulphur, is still a problem and we have found no cheap way to replace it,” explained Werner. “For three years we built sweet clover, under-seeded with wheat or barley, into our rotation. On the hill tops we ploughed it in and in the low areas we took feed. This improved the organic matter and nitrogen levels, but seemed too costly as a standard rotation.”

                                   YEAR
	   1 2 3      4        5                  6
Crop in    Alfalfa  Wheat  Canola with     Alfalfa or Barley
Rotation                   Alfalfa         with Alfalfa
                           (under-seeded)  (under-seeded)
			   or Fallow
			   (+manure)

Werner said they will still use sweet clover for spot treatments, but notes the use of it for feed is limited by the coumarin content. By trial and error they have decided parallel feeding of one bale of sweet clover hay alongside two bales of alfalfa hay is satisfactory. However, clover bales must be rolled out so the hay will not be eaten solely by more aggressive animals.

Livestock manure is an important source of organic matter for the poorer soils. Werner feels weather in their area is too cold for composting. They are considering cleaning out the feed-lot and piling the manure for one year before spreading it on the field, although this means handling the manure twice.

The Popps cut and spike alfalfa to break it up and then disc it. They try not to overwork the alfalfa field, leaving some stalks sticking up during the winter to catch snow. “I can’t see the chance for organic farming on a low tillage basis, at least not in the spring,” said Werner, though he feels minimal tillage is possible in the fall.

Marketing

The Popps sell what they can as organic produce and have only recently been officially certified as organic producers. Although their beef is not certified under the definition of organic, it is sold to private customers as “natural beef.” They are expanding their market to include larger stores. They have had difficulty selling organic barley in the past and see only a gradual improvement in the marketing of organic produce as certification is improved and markets become better organized. They look forward to gaining access to European beef markets and hope that in the future new slaughter facilities will be located in Manitoba.

Advice for the transition

“When farmers do things differently they are always in the spotlight,” Werner said. He counsels farmers to start their transition on fields away from highly visible areas like main highways or traffic arteries to avoid complaints about unsightliness.

For the transition, he advocates under-seeding alfalfa so if the grain crop fails, at least next year’s crop is seeded, and strongly advocates the use of an integrated farming system which includes cattle. Werner advises farmers not to start organic farming unless they intend to farm for some time, because it is a long term investment.

The Rileys

Location:                     Southwest of Strathclair, Manitoba
Farm type:                    Mixed grain, cattle and pigs
Farm size:                    445 ha (1,100 acres) 240 ha (600
                              acres) cropped, 200 ha (500 acres)
                              aspen, ravines, etc
Soils:                        Newdale clay loam soils, varying
                              topography
Average annual precipitation: 464 mm (18 in.)
Frost free days:              99
Started:                      1978
Emphasis:                     Weed management, compost, learning

Allan and Jane Riley farm 13 km (8 miles) south and west of Strathclair. Their farm has Newdale clay loam soils, and is in an area marked by varied topography and drainage. They started the transition to organic farming in 1978.

Crop rotation

The Rileys usually farm about 80 ha (200 acres) of wheat, 40 ha (100 acres) of rye and smaller areas of peas, oats, barley and flax. The crops grown vary depending on the weather and market situations. They try to keep about 80 ha (200 acres) of crop land in forage, have 30 to 50 beef cows and keep between five and ten sows.

The Rileys do not set a rigid pattern of crop rotation, but try to have at least three out of eight years in perennial forage. “Virtually all of my cereals are under-sown with a legume, either clover or peas, and I try to avoid having any soil go into the winter months black,” said Allan.

Allan believes the under-seeding of clover has a beneficial impact on the crop it is sown with, but he is not sure if this benefit is due to the shading effect of the clover on weeds. He believes this process needs to be more fully understood. Limited moisture has had considerable bearing on his crop rotation in the last few years. In 1988, heat killed his emerging clover and alfalfa and hail damaged 80 per cent of his wheat and barley.

Weed management and soil fertility

The Riley’s most troublesome weeds are: (listed in order of their effect on yield) wild mustard, Canada thistle, wild oats and quack grass. Allan uses the following weed management principles:

     1.   Ensure that spring tillage is not deeper than seeding
          depth.
     2.   Work once early, usually with a rodweeder.
     3.   Wait for a flush of wild oats.
     4.   Sow just into moisture (usually 5 to 7 cm (2 to 3 in.)
          for cereals).
     5.   Increase seeding rate.
     6.   Do not harrow immediately after seeding; rodweed a day or
          two after germination.
     7.   Sow a legume at right angles after crop is 5 to 7 cm (2
          to 3 in.) high.
     8.   Harrow if mustard is a problem at this stage.

Allan is thinking of trying continuous rye for two to three years to control quack grass in one problem field. He tries to disc in green manure at least once in three years and is developing a composting program. He is not yet satisfied with the quality of his compost and notes a number of problems. At very low winter temperatures the compost freezes and stays frozen, while at high summer temperatures it dries out quickly. The compost also needs to be turned at regular intervals. This is a time-consuming activity, as is loading and applying compost to the fields.

With tree cover and clay loam soils, the threat of erosion is not as serious as it could be, although there is a risk of wind erosion on open fields. A rodweeder is used for cultivation, a tandem disc for plough-down, and occasionally a deep tiller is used for stubble. The Rileys try not to harrow, except to spread crop residues.

Lessons and advice

The Rileys have tried a number of ways to retain moisture and hold snow cover, including leaving crop strips, planting crop strips in summerfallow fields and ploughing to ridge snow in winter.

Marketing their organic produce has been a problem. At one time, the Rileys sold crops to a firm in Ontario, and have had other offers of contracts, but neither situation worked out well for them. They are pleased the Canadian Wheat Board has been willing to process small shipments of organic wheat (See: Part III, Marketing of organic produce). Allan believes that to successfully market his crops, he would have to spend almost as much time on marketing as on production.

“The best advice I have seen,” he says, “is in a booklet, Switching to a Sustainable System written by Frederick Kirschenmann and put out by the Northern Plkains Sustainable Agricultural Society of North Dakota.” He advises farmers to be prepared to travel a lot and listen. Allan has found the most helpful meetings are ones where organic farmers discuss what works for them.

Allan suggests working with a small test area to start the transition to organic farming. “If you are worried about what the neighbours may say, pick a field out of the way.” Allan advises farmers to remember, “A lot of people who are now farming organically used to be sceptical conventional farmers looking over the fence. Above all, do not let anyone tell you organic farming isn’t possible!”

The Scotts

Location:                     West of Virden, Manitoba
Farm type:                    Mixed crops and 50-cow beef herd
Farm size:                    320 ha (800 acres), one third in
                              forage
Soils:                        Oxbow clay loam, varied topography
Average annual precipitation: 462 mm (18 in.)
Frost free days:              120
Started:                      1978
Emphasis:                     Philosophy, a balanced approach

Alex and Bette Scott had been farming conventionally since 1961, but have not used synthetically produced pesticides and fertilizes since 1978.

The Scotts cite ethical, religious, health and economic reasons for converting to organic methods. They believe the soil is a living, vital, God-given resource which they must maintain for future generations.

When they farmed conventionally, they were concerned that pollution was harming their soil. Accidental chemical spills resulted in barren, unproductive patches of soil. Financially, the loans and interest payments were a continuing burden. The Scotts decided to try growing food without many external inputs. They calculated they could grow crops without as many expenses and be further ahead.

Crop rotation

The Scotts describe their farm as a mixed operation. In addition to a 50 cow herd, they grow cereal crops including wheat, oats, barley and rye on about 160 ha (400 acres), special crops such as lentils and buckwheat on 20 to 40 ha (50 to 100 acres), and green manure crops, mostly yellow-blossom sweet clover, on 20 to 40 ha (50 to 100 acres). About a third of their land is under alfalfa and brome for hay and pasture. The Scotts follow a four-year rotation shown below, which builds soil structure, maintains nitrogen levels, and provides weed management.

                                   YEAR
            1                2          3            4
Crop in   Wheat followed  Fall Rye  Buckwheat     Clover
Rotation  by Fall Rye               or Oats with  (disc-down)
                                    (under-seeded)

They find that wheat, following the clover plough-down, has few weeds and is high in protein. Fall rye can be seeded with the wheat or direct-drilled into wheat stubble to conserve energy and suppress weeds. Although buckwheat tends to shatter, leading to a volunteer crop the next season, it is easily controlled during the clover disc-down. “Because we are constantly experimenting, we are not locked into a rotation and can respond to weather and market changes,” said Alex.

Pest management and tillage

Weeds seem to vary from year to year. Mustard is a “constant companion,” according to Alex. Wild oats are not as bad as they once were, but must be watched constantly. Their most troublesome weed has been Russian thistle in recent dry years, although wild millet has also become more common. The Scotts delay seeding and use heavier seeding rates to get quick ground cover and better weed control. A warmer soil also enhances emergence of the crop. A chaff saver behind the combine collects weed seeds and provides useful livestock feed. Insects have not been a problem, probably because of the crop rotation, although the Scotts avoid those crops, such as canola, that are particularly vulnerable to insects.

The Scotts continually experiment with tillage, using zero tillage (for planting rye), minimum tillage and conventional tillage. As they gain experience in organic weed control, they are confident that weed control can be achieved by tillage operations which do not expose the soil to erosion. Alex said, “Unfortunately, we cannot afford some implements we’d like, such as a Noble blade and a better zero-till drill.”

Soil fertility and composting

Livestock manure and a sweet clover green manure every four years are used to maintain soil fertility. The Scotts see the sweet clover green manure crop as an important part of their system. The sweet clover fixes nitrogen, suppresses weeds and improves soil texture.

The Scotts have been composting manure from their cattle for the past six years and regard it as a constructive use of waste products. Alex turned to composting after discovering that using raw manure seemed to upset the pH balance of the soil and spread the weed seeds present in the manure onto his fields. Composting manure also reduces bulk and makes it easier to spread: the 18 tonnes of regular manure that would be applied per ha (8 tons per acre) shrinks to 7 tonnes (3 tons) of compost with equal nutrient value.

When removing manure from the sheds in the spring, Alex said they try to mix the straw from the sheds with the wet manure from the corrals and the soil picked up when moving the manure. “We mix it together as best we can and put it in windrows that can be easily turned with our loader.”

When the heating process (decomposition) starts, Alex monitors the heat in the windrow. He likes to keep the temperature between 50 and 75øC (120 and 170øF) - not so hot that it burns, nor so cool that it doesn’t compost. He moves the windrows four or five times during the summer, depending on the temperature and weather. When ready, he spreads the compost. “You learn composting by trial and error,” said Alex, “just like anything else. You don’t need sophisticated equipment. A regular front-end loader will do it, but you may have to space your windrows a little farther apart.”

Lessons and advice

Because they shifted their entire operation to organic agriculture at once, the Scotts experienced a difficult weed problem during their first years. They believe it was due to a combination of their inexperience and what they call the land’s “withdrawal from chemical dependency.” Because their soils had not been built up with nutrients, yields dropped somewhat when the Scotts shifted to organic farming. During the transition phase the Scotts found their neighbours quite supportive.

The Scotts advise those contemplating organic farming to see if they can adopt the philosophy. They say an organic farming system must be economically sound and sustainable. They encourage people to start with only part of their farm. “A good way would be to start by putting an area into brome and alfalfa hay. If left in hay for the transition period, several things should happen. There is income from the hay, weeds are suppressed and soil structure is improved. After three or four years, this area of land is then ready to go.”

Having grown organic produce for some years, the Scotts have been able to break into a number of markets. They prefer to sell in bulk, although they recognize there is potential for farmers who wish to package and sell their produce in small lots. Markets are available, but more and more buyers are requiring organic certification.

The Scotts regard their farm as fully converted to a sustainable organic system but they continue to fine-tune its operation. They say the land is responding, and, although they are in an area with moderate rainfall on marginal land, yields are approaching the high average for the area.

The Thomases

Location:                     Karlsruhe, North Dakota, Southeast of
                              Minot
Farm type:                    Mixed crops and 40 cow-calf operation
Farm size:                    585 ha (1,446 acres)
Soils:                        Sandy loam
Average
Average annual precipitation: 440 mm (17 in.)
Frost free days:              134
Started:                      1977

Dan and Mickie Thomas have a 585 ha (1,446 acre) farm located near Karlsruhe, about 60 km (38 miles) southeast of Minot, North Dakota, in McHenry County.

Crop rotation

Currently they raise 180 ha (450 acres) of Len hard red spring wheat, 110 ha (280 acres) of sunflower, 80 ha (200 acres) of Dumont oats. They also have 80 ha (200 acres) in green manure fallow, with the balance in hay and pasture. Some years, they may have some buckwheat and plant millet or flax on part of the oat land. They maintain a 40 cow-calf operation and raise their own broilers, turkeys, ducks, rabbits and hogs.

“I try for a grass-type plant followed by a broadleaf and back to grass in my rotation,” says Dan. His aim is to have a clover disc-down every fourth year. If the clover fails, he plants sorghum-Sudan grass for plough-down. In practice, the rotation is modified to maintain the allotted wheat acres required for the American farm program. Wheat and sunflower acreage remain fairly constant and the other crop areas are adjusted accordingly. Their ideal rotation is illustrated in the chart below.

Dan composts all his manure in windrows. He does not turn the manure but allows it to decompose on its own, spreading the compost in the fall on the clover-fallow ground.

Weed control and tillage

Pigeon grass (green foxtail) is their most troublesome weed, mainly due to poor soil structure caused by hot, dry springs.

                                   YEAR
            1         2          3              4
Crop in   Wheat   Sunflower  Oats or         Clover
Rotation          or         Millet          (disc-down)
                  Buckwheat  with Clover     or Fallow
		             (under-seeded)  (+compost)

Although wild oats have also been a problem, Dan believes they are decreasing each year. Tillage and rotations are his main weed control strategy.

The sunflower seed weevil has been his main insect problem with some damage in 1988 and more in 1989.

The Thomases try to deep-till all the ground that will be in crop the next year with a Morris chisel plough using 40 cm (16 in.) sweeps. If the ground is hard in spring they will do a shallow tillage with sweeps. Usually they go straight into the field with a Morris Seedrite drill with no spring tillage. They have sometimes harrowed four to five days after seeding and plan to do more of this in the future. Sunflowers usually get two tillage operations with sweeps before planting, a harrowing after planting, and two inter-row cultivations. Clover is worked down with off-set discs. “I try to stay below 8 km/h (5 mph) when tilling any ground to leave as much residue on the surface as possible,” says Dan.

Ideas, problems and advice

“I want to do more experimenting on rotations and weed control,” says Dan. He reports some soil salinity, but thinks the spots are getting smaller.

While Dan acknowledges his neighbors have a higher gross return, he says his net return is higher. He believes his integrated approach has led to a rotation that is timed to reduce weeds and pests. Through the transition process, he’s been able to gain a better understanding of what the land needs and how to provide it.

Dan thinks other farmers will make the transition as market opportunities increase and they see organic farming can be successful. He cautions farmers, “If you are getting into organic only for better prices you are going to have problems.” He says, “The ability to think for yourself and stand alone, the desire to experiment and the desire to take pride in quality rather than quantity are important attributes for organic farmers.”

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Environment Canada and Manitoba Agriculture

That is the explanation that has been circulated to some media itself Garcia Carrion, who occupied the presidency of the FEV since March 2009, when he was appointed by the General Assembly of the organization. His replacement in office is likely to be up to Vice President Felix Solis, a decision to be adopted by the Executive Committee, which meets on Wednesday 9 June.

In his letter, Garcia Carrion shows its willingness to continue as a member of the Executive Committee of the FEV and recalls with pride the achievements during his tenure, such as accession to the bosses of the National Federation of Market, chaired by Pablo San Jose and has over 500 small wineries, the signing of a protocol to establish the unity of action late last year with AVIM, the incorporation of Bodegas Domes Group and, recently, Raja Group, reaching the goal of increasing the representative ness the wine business.

In addition, also indicated in his letter that he had “fought from the beginning to join forces between the FEV, the OEMV and FIVIN, because I’ve always felt that everyone, from their responsibility, should work together.” The mandate of the president of the FEV is for three years, so there would be José Garcia Carrion spent even half of it. After this deadline is the first vice president, in this case Felix Solis, who automatically assumes the presidency, while the outgoing president occupies the second vice presidency, currently held by Ignacio Osborne.

The formation of the Executive Committee will therefore be analyzed in the meeting scheduled for June 9.

At the exit of the informal meeting of ministers of agriculture, Elena Espinosa, and Commissioner of Agriculture of the European Union (EU), Declan Coils, advanced to be measures to regulate markets, such as milk, and showed their support for a Common Agricultural Policy (CAP) after 2013 strong.

According to the commissioner Coils, the discussion during the Informal Council has shown that there is “much interest” on the issues of a sector, agriculture, that “not one more” because it concerns the “growth and competitiveness” of the EU either in the economic, environmental, employment, or social development. According Coils, the future CAP should be “consistent and strong”, and improve the “contents” as “reform does not mean weakening.”

Espinosa has considered agriculture as part of the solution of the economic crisis and a renewed sustainable economic model and the commitment to a sustainable agricultural sector, productive and competitive, and a CAP “strong” to help achieve the objectives of Strategy 2020.

After tasting attended by the Commissioner himself, the mayor of Jeers, the president of the Royal Spanish Academy of Gastronomy Rafael Anson, and the owner of the Wine Curium Ruiz Alonso, the wine is closed with a cap rolled gold 24 carats. A jewel for the Hall valued at more than 20,000 euros: “The chance to uncork this bottle may not be the more appropriate given the great economic crisis we are suffering all, but I think it serves to give a touch of prestige and distinction to make Ignoble a very special room, if possible, in this privileged environment, “argued Campo.

At the opening of the Great Lord of Curium, followed the first of the meetings of food and wine with the presence of the chef Joseph Rica, owner of El Caller de Can Rica. This restaurant, holder of three Michelin stars, aligned over fifteen different wines with tapes. Rica explained before a full house of 50 people how “noble wines can become dishes, cava sauce or anchovies and truffles pairing through a Merlot.”

The takeover of the presidency by a country in the EU is often accompanied by an aura of something transcendent, something important about the role it can play in developing the State policy of 27. The reality, however, is that the mechanisms of debate and, above all, the guidelines within the EU have different paths and that the margin of what each country can do is just keep that wheel and, in the best, to contribute some ideas to the discussions, giving priority to some issues about the rest. In the case of the Spanish Presidency in agriculture, it is clear that in this first semester have been two issues on which it has sought to influence with the Commission and other EU countries. The future of the CAP and the need to find solutions to the current situation of the food chain.

With these two issues as the cornerstones of a strategy, we can say that the actions of the Spanish administration have been correct and that was the one suing the industry. As a starting point was raised, with no loophole for doubt, the need to maintain a strong CAP beyond 2013 with a single market, against those who raised the possibility of a re part of the aid. In the same vein, Spain has defended the need to maintain, not only direct payments at current levels, but also the mechanisms of market regulation, safety nets, clear rules against imports from third countries and increased transparency in the chain to the defense of farm incomes and the benefit of consumers.

The Spanish strategy in the Presidency on agriculture before the Commission was complemented by a defense of the same to the other countries, as well as the new commissioner to have a closer look at the Spanish about what is and should be the agricultural sector in the EU.Merida is, therefore, only put on the table about what all this has been discussed in the preceding months at different levels, aiming to be the dregs left in the future the role played by Spain in relation to agriculture.

To the Point. The EU presidencies within not go far and they are what they are. In relation to Spanish, from some agricultural sectors has been made of failure. Rather, they should talk to pass “inglorious”, but not just Spanish. It has done the right job to defend the CAP, but decisions are where they always have been, in the Commission. You could not wait any longer. The unfortunate thing is that when everything was going to a neutral balance, the Government has measured from the presidency as a victory for trade agreements with Central America and the resumption of negotiations with Marcos and services industry to export to these countries in exchange for the importation of agricultural products.

So, this presidency can be a reminder of the period when the “mother country” prompted the signing of agreements that can have a serious negative impact on agriculture.

For durum wheat the figures are not clear, it is not known the percentage could have gone to the animal feed industry, yet in Andalusia, the region that could accrue from this choice mainly for the manufacture of meal- might be talking about a half million tons unsold. In the context of the European Union, the climatic conditions are not as favorable as resulting in weeks ago. The UK is probably one of the countries most affected by the lack of rain, abnormally high temperatures for this time of year, which makes analysts and begin working with wheat production forecast below 16 million tons. In France the potential loss of income threatens to become reality, although in this case it rains there are forecasts for the coming days.

This will be noted in the final production of the Twenty, where most experts work with wheat volumes close to 130 million tones, far from the predicted 134 million based on average yields in the seeding phase. Finally, we have only to note that the offered price levels have not changed hardly anything in the last week or ports or national origins.

This activity is part of the work program realize the Faculty of Agricultural Engineering, the Center for Students, Faculty and Campus Chilean FEC. The kitchen is built with bricks, mud and some brass, so it is a low cost of manufacture and use. The activity also includes the construction of a Cinch. Parallel to the training building will be a rural community, so as to replicate the idea in their homes.

The Directors of the Agricultural Civil Engineering degree is made up of students Stefan Diaz, Maria Paz Rojas and Merisel Quinter’s.